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Table 2 Cause of death by maternal antenatal care utilization and pregnancy and labor and delivery characteristics

From: Causes and age of neonatal death and associations with maternal and newborn care characteristics in Nepal: a verbal autopsy study

Characteristic

All

Neonatal sepsis

Birth asphyxia

Prematurity related

LBW related

Others

DHS comparison group (%)+

p-value

Maternal antenatal care utilization

ANC visits

  No ANC

33 (9.8)*

21 (13.2)

2 (3.6)

5 (11.1)

1 (5.9)

4 (6.6)

5.9

 

  1–3 ANC visits

135 (39.9)

62 (39.0)

16 (28.6)

25 (55.6)

6 (35.3)

26 (42.6)

24.8

 

   ≥ 4 ANC visits

170 (50.3)

76 (47.8)

38 (67.9)

15 (33.3)

10 (58.8)

31 (50.8)

69.4

0.037

Tetanus immunization

   < 2

124 (42.6)

62 (47.3)

16 (30.2)

24 (63.2)

5 (35.7)

17 (30.9)

34.3

 

   ≥ 2

167 (57.4)

69 (52.7)

37 (69.8)

14 (36.8)

9 (64.3)

38 (69.1)

65.7

0.006

Iron/folic acid supplementation

  No

9 (3.0)

4 (3.0)

1 (1.9)

2 (5.1)

0 (0.0)

2 (3.6)

9.1

 

  Yes

290 (97.0)

131 (97.0)

53 (98.1)

37 (94.9)

16 (100.0)

53 (96.4)

90.9

0.841

Delivery preparations made

  0

107 (31.7)

41 (25.8)

18 (32.1)

21 (46.7)

2 (11.8)

25 (41.0)

16.2

 

   ≥ 1

231 (68.3)

118 (74.2)

38 (67.9)

24 (53.3)

15 (88.2)

36 (59.0)

83.8

0.012

Maternal pregnancy and labor and delivery characteristics

     

Single or multiple birth

  Single birth

318 (94.1)*

154 (96.9)

50 (89.3)

38 (84.4)

16 (94.1)

60 (98.4)

 

  Multiple birth

20 (5.9)

5 (3.1)

6 (10.7)

7 (15.6)

1 (5.9)

1 (1.6)

0.007

Type of delivery

  Vaginal delivery

289 (86.8)

138 (87.9)

48 (88.9)

40 (88.9)

13 (81.2)

50 (82.0)

91.0

 

  Cesarean section

38 (11.4)

17 (10.8)

4 (7.4)

4 (8.9)

3 (18.8)

10 (16.4)

9.0

 

  Other

6 (1.8)

2 (1.3)

2 (3.7)

1 (2.2)

0 (0.0)

1 (1.6)

0.747

Location of birth

  Home

148 (43.8)

76 (47.8)

21 (37.5)

17 (37.8)

3 (17.6)

31 (50.8)

41.4

 

  Health facility

172 (50.9)

79 (49.7)

32 (57.1)

23 (51.1)

12 (70.6)

26 (42.6)

57.3

 

  Other

18 (5.3)

4 (2.5)

3 (5.4)

5 (11.1)

2 (11.8)

4 (6.6)

1.2

0.080

Assistance at home delivery

  No assistance

80 (54.1)

45 (59.2)

7 (33.3)

12 (70.6)

2 (66.7)

14 (45.2)

10.0

 

  SBA

36 (24.3)

15 (19.7)

8 (38.1)

4 (23.5)

1 (33.3)

8 (25.8)

58.1

 

  Other

32 (21.6)

16 (21.1)

6 (28.6)

1 (5.9)

0 (0.0)

9 (29.0)

12.4

0.284

  1. * Data presented as number (percent)
  2. + Among women age 15–49 with a live birth in the 5 years preceding the survey, Nepal DHS 2016
  3. P values from chi-squared tests between each characteristic and causes of death
  4. Variable missingness for maternal antenatal care utilization was as follows: Tetanus immunization (n = 47/338, 13.9%) and iron/folic acid supplementation (n = 39/338, 11.5%). Data for tetanus immunization and iron/folic acid supplementation were only available for mothers who received at least one ANC visit (n = 305/338, 90.2%). While it is likely that the n = 33/338 (9.8%) women who did not receive ANC also did not receive these three interventions, this was not confirmed by the survey, and, therefore, these values were marked as missing data. Variable missingness for pregnancy and labor and delivery characteristics was as follows: type of delivery (n = 5/338, 1.5%) and distance from home to HF (n = 51/172, 29.7%). Data for assistance at home delivery were collected only for women who delivered at home (n = 148/338, 43.8%)