Fig. 1

Positive associations of urinary metals with frailty risk in total population and different subgroups were estimated by WQS models. A for joint effect of mixture exposures, B for single scaled effect size of heavy metal exposure. Models were adjusted for age, sex, race, family income-poverty ratio, education, smoking status, alcohol intake, serum cotinine concentration, BMI, hypertension, diabetes, physical activity and eGFR.